The pigeon pea
Etymology and other names
Scientific epithet
The scientific name for the
genus Cajanus and the
species cajan derive from the
Malay language word
katjang (modern spelling: kacang) meaning
legume in reference to the bean of the plant.
Common English names
In
English language they are commonly referred to as
pigeon pea which originates from the historical utilization of the pulse as
Columbidae fodder in
Barbados.
The term
Congo pea and
Angola pea developed due to the presence of its cultivation in Africa and the association of its utilization with those of African descent.
The names
no-eye pea and
red gram both refer to the characteristics of the seed, with
no-eye pea in reference to the lack of a hilum blotch on most varieties, unlike the
black-eyed pea, and
red gram in reference to the red color of most Indian varieties and gram simply referring to the plant being a
legume.
Internationally
Africa
In
Benin the pigeon pea is locally known as klouékoun in
Fon language, otinin in
Ede language and eklui in
Adja language.
In
Cape Verde they are called Fixon Kongu in Cape Verdean creole.
In
Comoros and
Mauritius they are known as embrevade or ambrebdade in Comorian
and
Mauritian Creole, respectively, in return originating from the Malagasy term for the plant amberivatry.
In
Ghana they are known as aduwa or adowa in
Dagbani language.
In
Kenya and
Tanzania they are known as mbaazi in
Swahili language.
In
Malawi they are called nandolo in
Chewa language.
In
Nigeria pigeon peas are called fiofio or mgbụmgbụ in
Igbo language,
or
in
Hausa language,
and òtílí in
Yoruba language.
In
Sudan they are known as , or ().
Asia
In
India the plant is known by various different names such as
-
, মিৰি মাহ
-
, तुवर
-
, ತೊಗರಿ ಕಾಳು
-
or തുവര
-
, କାକ୍ଷୀ , ତୁବର
-
, இருப்புலி , காய்ச்சி and துவரை
-
,
-
Lhasa Tibetan:
-
, توأر
In Persian language, it is known as شاخول and is popular in dishes.
In the Philippines they are known as Kadios in Filipino and Kadyos in Tagalog language.
The Americas
In
Latin America,
they are known as guandul or gandul in
Spanish language, and feijão andu or gandu in Portuguese all of which derive from
Kongo language wandu or from
Kimbundu oanda; both names referring to the same plant.
In the Anglophone regions of the Caribbean, like Jamaica,[Carney, J. A. and Rosomoff, R. N. (2009) In the Shadow of Slavery. Africa’s Botanical legacy in the Atlantic World. Berkeley: University of California Press]
In Francophone regions of the Caribbean they are known as pois d' angole,
In Suriname they are known as wandoe
Oceania
In
Hawaii they are known as or in the Hawaiian language.
History and origin
Origin
The closest relatives to the cultivated pigeon pea are Cajanus cajanifolia, Cajanus scarabaeoides and Cajanus kerstingii, native to India and the latter West Africa respectively.
Much debate exist over the geographical origin of the species, with some groups claiming origin from the
Nile and
West Africa, and the other Indian origin.
The two epicenters of genetic diversity exist in both Africa and India, but India is considered to be its primary center of origin with West Africa being considered a second major center of origin.
History
By at least 2,800 BCE in peninsular India,
where its presumptive closest wild relatives
Cajanus cajanifolia occurs in tropical
Deciduous, its cultivation has been documented.
[Van der Maeson, L. J. G. (1995). "Pigeonpea Cajanus cajan", pp. 251–5 in Smartt, J. and Simmonds, N. W. (eds.), Evolution of Crop Plants. Essex: Longman.] Archaeological finds of pigeon pea cultivation dating to about 14th century BC have also been found at the
Neolithic site of
Sanganakallu in
Bellary and its border area
Tuljapur (where the cultivation of African domesticated plants like
pearl millet, finger millet, and
Lablab have also been uncovered),
as well as in Gopalpur and other
South India.
From India it may have made its way to Northeast Africa via Trans-Oceanic Bronze Age trade that allowed cross-cultural exchange of resources and agricultural products.
Pigeon peas were introduced to Hawaii in 1824 by James Macrae with a few specimens becoming naturalized on the islands, but they wouldn't gain much popularity until later.
Nutrition
Pigeon peas contain high levels of
protein and the important
methionine,
lysine, and
tryptophan.
[ "Nutrition Facts and Analysis for Pigeon peas (red gram), mature seeds, raw"]
The following table indicates completeness of nutritional profile of various amino acids within mature seeds of pigeon pea.
Methionine + Cystine combination is the only limiting amino acid combination in pigeon pea. In contrast to the mature seeds, the immature seeds are generally lower in all nutritional values, however they contain a significant amount of vitamin C (39 mg per 100 g serving) and have a slightly higher fat content. Research has shown that the protein content of the immature seeds is of a higher quality.
Cultivation
Pigeon peas can be of a perennial variety, in which the crop can last three to five years (although the seed yield drops considerably after the first two years), or an annual variety more suitable for seed production.
Global production
World production of pigeon peas is estimated at 4.49 million tons.
About 63% of this production comes from India. The total number of hectares grown to pigeon pea is estimated at 5.4 million.
accounts for 72% of the area grown to pigeon pea or 3.9 million hectares.
Africa is the secondary centre of diversity and at present it contributes about 21% of global production with 1.05 million tons.
Malawi,
Tanzania,
Kenya,
Mozambique and
Uganda are the major producers in Africa.
The pigeon pea is an important legume crop of rainfed agriculture in the semiarid tropics. The Indian subcontinent, Africa and Central America, in that order, are the world's three main pigeon pea-producing regions. Pigeon peas are cultivated in more than 25 tropical and subtropical countries, either as a sole crop or intermixed with , such as sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor), pearl millet ( Pennisetum glaucum), or maize ( Zea mays), or with other legumes, such as ( Arachis hypogea). Being a legume capable of symbiosis with Rhizobia, the bacteria associated with the pigeon pea enrich soils through symbiotic nitrogen fixation.
The crop is cultivated on marginal land by resource-poor farmers, who commonly grow traditional medium- and long-duration (5–11 months) . Short-duration pigeon peas (3–4 months) suitable for multiple cropping have recently been developed. Traditionally, the use of such input as fertilizers, weeding, irrigation, and pesticides is minimal, so present yield levels are low (average = ). Greater attention is now being given to managing the crop because it is in high demand at remunerative prices.
Pigeon peas are very drought-resistant and can be grown in areas with less than 650 mm annual rainfall. With the maize crop failing three out of five years in drought-prone areas of Kenya, a consortium led by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) aimed to promote the pigeon pea as a drought-resistant, nutritious alternative crop.
Nitrogen fixation
Legumes, which provide highly nutritious products and contribute to soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation, are one of the most important crops in mixed crop-livestock systems.
is an important legume crop with a high N-fixation ability (79 % N derived from the atmosphere).
Plant-growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), together with strains of
Rhizobium, can enhance growth and nitrogen fixation in pigeon pea by colonizing thenselves in the plant
Root nodule.
These bioinoculants can be added as a single species but also as combined communities. Using a single bioinoculant shows benefits, but mixed communitites of different bioinoculatns have a greater positive impact on nodulation, plant dry mass, as well as shoot and root length.
These different community species have different functions for the pigeon pea:
| +
!Bioinoculant
!Function |
| Azotobacter chroococcum | promotes plant growth as a biofertilizer |
| Bacillus megaterium | produces nematode-targeting antibiotics and potentially influencing cytokinin signaling and supports the nitrogen yield of the plant especially during flowering and maturity stages |
| Pseudomonas fluorescens | produces bioactive metabolites and siderophores that combat plant pathogens and supports the denitrification process |
| Trichoderma harzianum | promotes soil health by production of enzymes and secondary metabolites that enhibit harmful soilborne pathogens and nutrient cycling by promoting root development |
Pests and diseases
Pigeon pea is affected by a variety of pests and insects that can significantly impact crop yield and quality. They can infest the plant from seedling stage till harvest, therefore pests and diseas are the primary cause for low yields.
The major pests are moths include the gram pod borer (
Helicoverpa armigera), which causes defoliation and pod damage; the blue butterfly (
Lampides boeticus), which infests buds, flowers, and young pods; and the spotted pod borer (
Maruca vitrata), known for webbing together infested pods and flowers.
The tur pod bug (
Clavigralla gibbosa) is another significant pest of pigeon pea, causing substantial damage to pods and seeds. Current resistance efforts focus on breeding pigeon pea varieties with enhanced resistance to these pests. However, the presence of multiple pest species and the variability in pest pressure across regions pose challenges to achieving consistent resistance.
Effective management techniques include integrated pest management (IPM) strategies such as
crop rotation,
intercropping with non-host plants, timely sowing, and the use of biological control agents like
and
Predation.
Chemical control measures, including the application of insecticides like neem-based products and synthetic
, are also employed when necessary.
Common diseases of pigeon pea:
-
Fusarium wilt ( Fusarium udum)
-
Dry root rot ( Macrophomina phaseolina)
-
Phytophthora blight ( Phytophthora drechsleri)
-
Alternaria leaf spot ( Alternaria alternata)
-
Powdery mildew ( Leveillula taurica)
-
Sterility mosaic disease ( Pigeon pea sterility mosaic virus)
-
Yellow mosaic virus ( Mungbean yellow mosaic virus)
Breeding
Pigeonpea is unique among legumes in that its flowers support both cross-pollination and
self-pollination. The bright, nectar-rich flowers attract pollinating insects, allowing natural
outcrossing, which averages about 20% but varies with location due to pollinator populations. This level of outcrossing can lead to genetic contamination of parental lines and complicate the selection of lines by reducing the homozygosity of progeny. To mitigate these effects, breeders use techniques such as enclosing flowers in
muslin bags or nets to prevent insect pollination. However, natural outcrossing also results in genetically diverse landraces and requires two to three generations of selfing before parental lines can be used in hybridisation programmes.
Over 50 years of pigeonpea breeding has resulted in genetic improvements, disease-resistant varieties, a reduction in crop maturity from 300 to less than 90 days, and the introduction of the first legume hybrid technology, which has increased yields by 30-50%. Despite these advances, yield per unit area has remained stable, with improved stability and diversification for farmers.
John Spence, a botanist and politician from Trinidad and Tobago, developed several varieties of dwarf pigeon peas which can be harvested by machine, instead of by hand.
Genome sequence
The pigeon pea is the first seed legume plant to have its complete genome sequenced. The sequencing was first accomplished by a group of 31 Indian scientists from the Indian Council of Agricultural Research. It was then followed by a global research partnership, the International Initiative for Pigeon pea Genomics (IIPG), led by
ICRISAT with partners such as BGI–Shenzhen (China), US research laboratories like University of Georgia, University of California-Davis, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, and National Centre for Genome Resources, European research institutes like the National University of Ireland Galway. It also received support from the CGIAR Generation Challenge Program, US National Science Foundation and in-kind contribution from the collaborating research institutes.
It is the first time that a CGIAR-supported research center such as ICRISAT led the genome sequencing of a food crop. There was a controversy over this as CGIAR did not partner with a national team of scientists and broke away from the Indo American Knowledge Initiative to start their own sequencing in parallel.
The 616 mature and 3919 long non-codingRNAs sequences were identified in the genome of pigeon pea.
Dehulling
There are various methods of removing the pulse from its shell. In earlier days hand pounding was common. Several traditional methods are used that can be broadly classified under two categories: the wet method and the dry method. The Wet method Involves water soaking, sun drying and dehulling. The Dry method Involves oil/water application, drying in the sun, and dehulling. Depending on the magnitude of operation, large-scale commercial dehulling of large quantities of pigeon pea into its deskinned, split version, known as toor
dal in Hindi, is done in mechanically operated mills.
[ Pigeonpea in Eastern and Southern Africa , ICRISAT Posted 10 October 2012. Downloaded 26 January 2014.]
Uses
Culinary use
Pigeon peas are both a food crop (dried peas, flour, or green vegetable peas) and a forage/cover crop. In combination with
cereals, pigeon peas make a well-balanced meal and hence are favored by nutritionists as an essential ingredient for balanced diets. The dried peas may be sprouted briefly, then cooked, for a flavor different from the green or dried peas.
Africa
In Cape Verde they make a soup with the dried pigeon peas called feijão Congo, after its own name, made with dried pigeon peas in a similar manner to Brazilian
feijoada.
In Kenya and throughout the Swahili-speaking region of East Africa, pigeon peas are utilized in dishes such as mbaazi na mahamri, that is usually served for breakfast.
In the Enugu State of Nigeria, an Igbo dish called Echicha or Achịcha is made with palm oil, cocoyam, and seasoning.
In Ethiopia, the pods, the young shoots and leaves, are cooked and eaten.[Zemede Asfaw, "Conservation and use of traditional vegetables in Ethiopia" , Proceedings of the IPGRI International Workshop on Genetic Resources of Traditional Vegetables in Africa (Nairobi, 29–31 August 1995)]
Asia
In India, it is one of the most popular pulses, being an important source of protein in a mostly vegetarian diet. It is the primary accompaniment to rice or
roti and has the status of
staple food throughout the length and breadth of India. In regions where it grows, fresh young pods are eaten as a vegetable in dishes such as
sambar.
In the Western Visayas region of the Philippines, pigeon peas are the main ingredient of a very popular dish called "KBL" - an acronym for "Kadyos" (pigeon pea), "Baboy" (pork), and "Langka" (jackfruit). It is a savory soup with rich flavors coming from the pigeon peas, smoked pork preferably the legs or tail, and souring agent called Garcinia binucao. Raw jackfruit meat is chopped and boiled to soft consistency, and serves as an extender. The violet color of the soup comes from the pigment of the variety commonly grown in the region.
The Americas
In the Caribbean coast of
Colombia, such as the Atlántico department of Colombia, the sopa de guandú con carne salada (or simply "gandules") is made with pigeon peas, yam, plantain, yuca, and spices.
During the week of
Holy Week a sweet is made out of pigeon peas called
dulce de guandules which is made by mashed and sweetened pigeon peas with origins in the
Maroons community of San Basilio de Palenque.
In the Dominican Republic, a dish made of rice and green pigeon peas called moro de guandules is a traditional holiday food. It is also consumed as guandules guisados, which is a savoury stew with coconut and squash served with white rice. A variety of sancocho is also made based on green pigeon peas that includes poultry, pork, beef, yams, yucca, squash, plantain and others. Dominicans have a high regard for this legume and it is consumed widely.
In Panama, pigeon peas are used in a dish called Arroz con guandú y coco or "rice with pigeon peas and coconut" traditionally prepared and consumed during the end of year holidays.
In Puerto Rico, arroz con gandules is made with rice and pigeon peas and sofrito which is a traditional dish, especially during Christmas season.
Jamaica also uses pigeon peas instead of kidney beans in their rice and peas dish, especially during the Christmas season.
Trinidad and Tobago and Grenada have their own variant, called pelau, which includes either beef or chicken, and occasionally pumpkin and pieces of cured pig tail.
Unlike in some other parts of the Greater Caribbean, in The Bahamas pigeon peas are used in dried form, light brown in color to make the heartier, heavier, signature Bahamian staple dish "Peas 'n Rice."
Oceania
In
Hawaii they are used to make a dish called
gandule rice, also called
godule rice,,
and
ganduddy rice originates on the island from the
Puerto Ricans community with historic ties to the island and is prepared in a similar manner to that of traditional Puerto Rican arroz con gandules.
Other uses
Agricultural
It is an important ingredient of animal feed used in West Africa, especially in Nigeria, where it is also grown. Leaves, pods, seeds and the residues of seed processing are used to feed all kinds of livestock.
[Heuzé V., Thiollet H., Tran G., Delagarde R., Bastianelli D., Lebas F., 2017. Pigeon pea ( Cajanus cajan
]
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In the Congo pigeon peas are utilized as one of the main Forest gardening and soil improvement crops after using a Slash-and-burn technique called maala.
Pigeon peas are in some areas an important crop for green manure, providing up to 90 kg nitrogen per hectare.
Medicinal
Pigeon pea has been valued for its medicinal properties since prehistoric times in various regions, including Africa, Egypt and Asia. Today, different countries use different parts of the plant to treat a range of diseases as an alternative medicine. In the Republic of Congo the Kongo people, Lari, and
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In Madagascar the branches have been used as a teeth cleaning twig.
See also
-
List of pigeon pea diseases
External links
